5.1 Introduction

Natural vegetation refers to plant life that grows naturally without human interference. In India, vegetation types vary due to differences in climate, soil, relief, and rainfall. India is also one of the 17 mega-diverse countries in the world.

5.2 Classification of Vegetation in India (by Forest Survey of India)

India’s forests are classified into five major types and various subtypes, mainly based on Champion and Seth classification (1968).

1. Tropical Evergreen Forests (Rain Forests)

Rainfall: Above 200 cm

Location: Western Ghats, Andaman-Nicobar Islands, NE states
Features: Dense, multilayered, evergreen trees, poor visibility due to thickness
Important trees: Ebony, Mahogany, Rosewood

2. Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests)

Rainfall: 100–200 cm
Location: Central India, Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh
Features: Trees shed leaves in dry season

Subtypes:
- Moist Deciduous: Teak, Sal
- Dry Deciduous: Tendu, Neem

3. Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs

Rainfall: < 75 cm
Location: Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of MP, UP
Vegetation: Cactus, Acacia, Babool

Adaptations: Thick barks, spines, long roots

4. Montane Forests

Location: Himalayas
Types:
- Temperate forests: Oak, Chestnut (lower slopes)
- Alpine forests: Fir, Pine, Spruce (higher altitudes)
- Alpine grasslands and mosses above the tree line

5. Mangrove Forests

Location: Coastal areas with saline/brackish water
Notable Region: Sundarbans Delta – largest mangrove forest in the world
Important species: Sundari, Rhizophora

Significance: Protect coasts from erosion, cyclones

5.3 Forest Cover in India (as per FSI 2023 Report)

Total forest cover: Around 21.7% of India’s geographical area
Top States by Forest Cover (Area):
1. Madhya Pradesh
2. Arunachal Pradesh
3. Chhattisgarh
4. Odisha
5. Maharashtra
Top States by Forest Cover (Percentage):
1. Mizoram
2. Arunachal Pradesh
3. Meghalaya
4. Manipur
5. Nagaland

5.4 Biodiversity in India

India has 8% of the world’s recorded biodiversity.

Hotspots in India:
1. Himalayas
2. Western Ghats
3. Indo-Burma
4. Sundaland (Nicobar Islands)

5.5 Wildlife in India

India is home to tigers, elephants, lions, leopards, rhinoceros, and many endemic species. Conservation is essential due to habitat loss and poaching.

5.6 Conservation Efforts

Protected Areas

National Parks: No human activity allowed; focused on conservation
Wildlife Sanctuaries: Limited human activity allowed
Biosphere Reserves: Conservation + Research + Sustainable use

Important Protected Areas

Name	Location	Famous For
Jim Corbett NP	Uttarakhand	First NP (1936), Tigers
Kaziranga NP	Assam	One-horned Rhinoceros
Sundarbans NP	West Bengal	Royal Bengal Tiger, Mangroves
Gir NP	Gujarat	Asiatic Lions
Periyar WLS	Kerala	Elephants, Tigers

Major Conservation Programs

Project Tiger (1973): Panthera tigris conservation
Project Elephant (1992): Elephant corridors and habitat protection
Crocodile Conservation Project: Chambal River

Operation Save Vulture: Against Diclofenac use

5.7 Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

Provides legal protection to endangered species.
Classified animals/plants into Schedules I–VI.
- Schedule I & II: Highest protection (e.g., Tiger, Elephant)
- Schedule III–IV: Less strict protection
- Schedule VI: Protected plants

5.8 Threats to Vegetation and Wildlife

Deforestation
Poaching and illegal trade
Human-wildlife conflict

Climate change
Habitat fragmentation

5.9 Government Initiatives

CAMPA: Compensatory Afforestation Fund

Eco-sensitive zones around protected areas
Joint Forest Management (JFM): Forest-community partnership
National Green Tribunal (NGT): Environmental governance

Map Focus Areas for Prelims & Mains

Mark National Parks and Biosphere Reserves on map.
Identify states with mangroves, dry forests, coniferous forests.
Use maps to learn corridors like Kanha–Pench, Kaziranga–Karbi Anglong.

Prelims Must-Know

Largest NP: Hemis (Ladakh)
Highest tiger population: Madhya Pradesh
India’s 1st Biosphere Reserve: Nilgiri (1986)

Only NP in Thar Desert: Desert National Park (Rajasthan)
Ramsar Sites: India has 75 (2023)

Chapter 6: Soils of India

6.1 Introduction

Soil is the topmost layer of Earth’s crust formed by the weathering of rocks and organic decomposition. It supports plant life and is the base of agriculture. India’s diverse physiography and climate lead to the formation of various soil types, each suited for specific crops.

6.2 Factors Influencing Soil Formation

Parent rock material

Climate (temperature and rainfall)
Topography
Biological activity

Time

6.3 Major Soil Types of India (As per ICAR classification)

1. Alluvial Soil

Coverage: 43% of India’s land area
Location: Indo-Gangetic plains (Punjab, UP, Bihar, WB, Assam), coastal deltas

Origin: River-deposited sediments
Texture: Sandy to clayey, rich in potash
Crops: Rice, wheat, sugarcane, pulses

Types:
- Khadar: New alluvium (more fertile)
- Bangar: Old alluvium

2. Black Soil (Regur Soil)

Coverage: 15%
Location: Maharashtra, MP, Gujarat, Telangana, Andhra
Origin: Lava-covered Deccan Plateau

Texture: Clayey, retains moisture
Features: Swells when wet, cracks when dry
Crops: Cotton (black soil is cotton soil), soyabean, sugarcane

3. Red Soil

Coverage: 18%
Location: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, SE MP, Chhattisgarh, Odisha
Origin: Crystalline rocks, weathered granite

Color: Red due to iron oxide
Features: Low in nitrogen, phosphate
Crops: Millets, pulses, groundnut (with fertilizers)

4. Laterite Soil

Coverage: 3.5%
Location: Western Ghats, Odisha, Assam, Meghalaya, Karnataka, Kerala
Formation: Intense leaching in heavy rainfall

Poor fertility, acidic
Crops: Cashew, coffee, tea (after fertilization)

5. Arid/Desert Soil

Coverage: 4.5%

Location: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana
Features: Sandy, low organic matter, high soluble salts
Color: Pale brown

Crops: Pearl millet, barley (if irrigated)

6. Mountain Soil

Location: Himalayas, NE states
Features: Thin, rich in humus

Varies with altitude
Crops: Tea, coffee, temperate fruits

7. Saline and Alkaline Soils

Location: Arid/semi-arid areas, Punjab, UP, Haryana

Causes: Over-irrigation, poor drainage
Problem soils, require treatment (gypsum)
Crops: Rice, wheat (after reclamation)

8. Peaty and Marshy Soil

Location: Kerala, Bengal, coastal areas
High organic matter (humus)
Waterlogged, acidic

Use: Rice cultivation

6.4 Soil Erosion

Definition: Removal of topsoil by natural agents
Causes:
- Deforestation
- Overgrazing
- Unscientific farming
- Shifting cultivation (Jhum)
Types:
- Sheet erosion (thin layer removed)
- Rill erosion (small channels)
- Gully erosion (deep cuts – Chambal ravines)
- Wind erosion (Thar Desert)

6.5 Soil Conservation Methods

Afforestation
Contour ploughing
Terracing

Windbreaks and shelter belts
Check dams
Crop rotation & strip cropping

Dryland farming techniques

6.6 Soil Fertility and Classification (Exam-Specific)

Soil Type	Fertility	Major Crops
Alluvial	Highly fertile	Rice, wheat, sugarcane, pulses
Black	Very fertile	Cotton, soyabean, oilseeds
Red	Moderately poor	Groundnut, millets (with manure)
Laterite	Infertile	Cashew, coffee (with treatment)
Desert	Poor	Bajra, pulses (if irrigated)
Peaty	Rich in humus	Rice (low pH)

6.7 UPSC/PSC/SSC Focus Points

Most widespread soil: Alluvial
Soil of Deccan Plateau: Black

Soil with high moisture retention: Black
Soil needing fertilizers most: Red
Soil supporting tea/coffee: Mountain/Laterite

Soil prone to erosion: Chambal (gullies)
Matching soil types with states is a frequent map-based question.

Map-based Practice

Aspirants should be able to identify soil zones on a blank map:

Indo-Gangetic plain – Alluvial
Deccan plateau – Black
Western Ghats – Laterite

Rajasthan – Arid
NE states – Mountain soils