Chapter 7: Agriculture in India
7.1 Introduction
- Agriculture is the backbone of the Indian economy, employing over 50% of the population.
- It contributes about 17–18% to India’s GDP.
- Indian agriculture is influenced by monsoons, soil, irrigation, and traditional methods.
7.2 Types of Agriculture in India
- Subsistence Farming
- Done for self-consumption
- Traditional tools, small holdings
- Examples: Bihar, Uttar Pradesh villages
- Commercial Farming
- Large-scale production for market
- High investment, HYV seeds
- Examples: Punjab, Haryana (wheat); Maharashtra (sugarcane)
- Plantation Agriculture
- Single crop on large estate
- Requires capital, labor, processing units
- Examples: Tea (Assam), Coffee (Karnataka), Rubber (Kerala)
- Shifting Cultivation (Jhum)
- Practiced in North-East
- Forest cleared → cultivation → land abandoned after 2–3 years
- Intensive and Extensive Farming
- Intensive: High output per land area (UP, Punjab)
- Extensive: Low output per unit area (desert, plateau regions)
- Organic Farming
- No chemical fertilizers/pesticides
- Gaining importance post-2000s
- States: Sikkim (first 100% organic state)
7.3 Cropping Seasons in India
| Season | Months | Major Crops |
|---|---|---|
| Rabi | Oct–March | Wheat, barley, mustard, peas |
| Kharif | June–Sept (Monsoon) | Rice, maize, cotton, jute |
| Zaid | March–June (Summer) | Watermelon, cucumber, fodder |
7.4 Major Crops and Their Regions
| Crop | Leading States | Soil Type |
|---|---|---|
| Rice | WB, UP, Punjab, Odisha | Alluvial, clayey |
| Wheat | Punjab, UP, Haryana | Alluvial, loamy |
| Millets | Rajasthan, Karnataka | Red, sandy |
| Cotton | Maharashtra, Gujarat | Black soil |
| Sugarcane | UP, Maharashtra | Alluvial, loamy |
| Tea | Assam, West Bengal | Mountain soil |
| Coffee | Karnataka, Kerala | Laterite, forest |
| Pulses | MP, UP, Rajasthan | Light sandy, loamy |
| Oilseeds | Gujarat, MP, Maharashtra | Various |
7.5 Irrigation in India
Need: Uneven rainfall distribution
Types of Irrigation:
- Wells and Tube Wells – Used in Indo-Gangetic plains (UP, Punjab)
- Canals – From rivers or dams (Punjab, Haryana)
- Tanks – Mostly in South India (Tamil Nadu, Karnataka)
- Drip Irrigation – Water directly to roots (Gujarat, Maharashtra)
- Sprinkler Irrigation – Efficient water usage (Rajasthan)
Major Irrigation Projects:
- Indira Gandhi Canal – Rajasthan
- Bhakra Nangal Dam – Himachal/Punjab
- Sardar Sarovar Dam – Gujarat
- Hirakud Dam – Odisha
- Tehri Dam – Uttarakhand
7.6 Green Revolution in India
- Introduced in 1960s with HYV seeds, fertilizers, irrigation
- Father: M.S. Swaminathan
- Initial Focus: Wheat, Rice
- Main Regions: Punjab, Haryana, Western UP
- Outcomes:
- Pros: Increased food production, self-sufficiency
- Cons: Soil degradation, water depletion, regional imbalance
7.7 Agricultural Problems in India
- Overdependence on monsoon
- Fragmented landholdings
- Low mechanization
- Soil erosion and fertility loss
- Market fluctuations and debt
- Lack of cold storage and processing units
7.8 Government Schemes Related to Agriculture
| Scheme | Objective |
|---|---|
| PM-KISAN | ₹6,000/year to small & marginal farmers |
| PMFBY | Crop insurance scheme |
| e-NAM | Online agricultural market integration |
| Soil Health Card | Assessing and improving soil productivity |
| Paramparagat Krishi Yojana | Promoting organic farming |
| RKVY (Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana) | Holistic development of agriculture |
7.9 Agricultural Regions (ICAR classification)
- Western Himalayan Region: Apple, temperate fruits
- Indo-Gangetic Plain: Rice, wheat, sugarcane
- Eastern Plateau and Hills: Millets, pulses
- Western Plateau and Hills: Cotton, soybean
- Southern Plateau and Hills: Rice, groundnut
- Coastal and Deltaic Region: Rice, coconut
- North-Eastern Region: Jhum, rice, horticulture
7.10 Future of Indian Agriculture
- Precision farming using GIS & satellite data
- Climate-resilient crops to handle drought/flood
- Vertical farming, hydroponics gaining interest in urban areas
- Digital agriculture and agri-startups are transforming marketing, credit, and information delivery.
UPSC/PSC/SSC Focus Areas
- Match crops to soil, state, and season
- Green Revolution impact + map location
- Scheme–objective pairings
- Crop production rankings
- Types of irrigation and related dams
Chapter 8: Mineral and Energy Resources of India
8.1 Introduction
India is richly endowed with various mineral and energy resources. These are the backbone of the industrial and economic structure of the country.
Minerals are classified into:
- Metallic: Iron, bauxite, manganese, copper, etc.
- Non-metallic: Mica, limestone, gypsum, etc.
- Energy minerals: Coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium.
8.2 Metallic Minerals
1. Iron Ore
- Types: Hematite (high-grade), Magnetite (higher iron content)
- Leading States:
- Odisha (Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj)
- Chhattisgarh (Bailadila)
- Jharkhand (Singhbhum)
- Karnataka (Bellary)
2. Bauxite (Aluminium ore)
- Leading States: Odisha (Kalahandi, Koraput), Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP
- Used in: Aircraft, electrical wires, packaging
3. Manganese
- Essential for steel industry
- Major states: Odisha, Karnataka, Maharashtra, MP
4. Copper
- Electrical & electronics industry
- Major producer: Rajasthan (Khetri), Jharkhand (Singhbhum), MP (Balaghat)
8.3 Non-Metallic Minerals
1. Mica
- Used in electricals, insulation
- India is a leading exporter
- Main States: Jharkhand (Kodarma), Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan
2. Limestone
- Used in cement and iron & steel industries
- Found in: MP, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan
3. Gypsum
- Used in cement, fertilizers
- Found in: Rajasthan, Jammu & Kashmir
8.4 Energy Resources
1. Coal
- India’s most abundant fossil fuel
- Types: Anthracite (best), Bituminous (most used), Lignite, Peat
- Major Fields:
- Jharia, Bokaro – Jharkhand
- Raniganj – West Bengal
- Korba – Chhattisgarh
- Singareni – Telangana
- Coal Fields: Gondwana (major), Tertiary (NE India)
2. Petroleum (Crude Oil)
- Mumbai High – Offshore basin (largest contributor)
- Assam – Digboi, Naharkatiya
- Gujarat – Ankleshwar, Cambay basin
- Krishna-Godavari Basin – Emerging fields
3. Natural Gas
- Found with petroleum
- Major Fields:
- Mumbai High
- KG Basin (Andhra)
- Tripura
- Used for: CNG, fertilizer plants, cooking gas
8.5 Renewable Energy Sources
1. Hydropower
- Clean energy, no emissions
- India: 5th in hydro potential globally
- Major Projects:
- Bhakra Nangal (Satluj)
- Tehri (Bhagirathi)
- Hirakud (Mahanadi)
- Sardar Sarovar (Narmada)
2. Solar Energy
- India has immense potential (300+ sunny days)
- Top states: Rajasthan, Gujarat, MP, Andhra Pradesh
- Schemes: PM-KUSUM, International Solar Alliance (ISA)
3. Wind Energy
- India: Among top 5 globally
- Wind-rich states: Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka
- Key sites: Muppandal (TN), Jaisalmer (Rajasthan)
4. Nuclear Energy
- Controlled by Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL)
- Fuel: Uranium (Jharkhand – Jaduguda), Thorium (Kerala sands)
- Plants:
- Tarapur (Maharashtra)
- Rawatbhata (Rajasthan)
- Kudankulam (TN)
- Kalpakkam (TN)
8.6 Distribution Map Tips
- Iron Ore Belt: Odisha–Jharkhand–Chhattisgarh–Karnataka
- Coal Belt: Jharkhand–WB–Chhattisgarh–MP
- Petroleum Belt: Western offshore + Assam–NE + Gujarat
- Hydro Sites: Along Himalayan + peninsular rivers
8.7 Challenges in Mineral and Energy Sector
- Uneven distribution
- Environmental degradation (mining pollution)
- Displacement of tribal population
- Overdependence on coal and oil imports
- Lack of advanced tech in mining
8.8 Conservation and Policy Measures
- National Mineral Policy
- Energy Conservation Act (2001)
- Promotion of clean energy and strategic reserves
- Coal India Ltd., ONGC, GAIL, SAIL as major PSUs
- Encourage Fossil Fuel Substitution with renewables
UPSC/PSC/SSC Focus Points
- Match minerals with states and industrial uses
- Locations of refineries and power plants
- Renewable vs. Non-renewable resource comparison
- Recent current affairs (E.g., coal shortage, oil price hike, ISA)