Chapter 13: Environmental Geography of India 13.1 Introduction India is one of the 17 mega-biodiverse countries and faces serious environmental challenges due to rapid urbanization, industrialization, and population pressure. Environmental geography deals with the interaction between physical systems and human activity .
13.2 Major Environmental Issues in India 1. Air Pollution
Sources : Vehicle emissions, thermal power plants, construction dust, crop burningCities affected : Delhi, Ghaziabad, Kanpur, Lucknow
Pollutants : PM2.5, PM10, SO₂, NOx, COHealth impact : Respiratory diseases, asthma, reduced lung function
2. Water Pollution
Sources : Industrial discharge, sewage, agricultural runoff
Polluted Rivers : Ganga, Yamuna, Sabarmati, MithiProgrammes :
Namami Gange (2015): Integrated river conservationJal Jeevan Mission : Clean drinking water access
3. Soil Degradation
Causes : Deforestation, overgrazing, excessive use of fertilizers, miningImpacts : Decline in productivity, erosion, desertification
Schemes : National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), Watershed Management
4. Deforestation
Drivers : Infrastructure, mining, encroachmentEffects : Loss of biodiversity, soil erosion, carbon emissions
Afforestation initiatives : CAMPA funds, Van Mahotsav, Green India Mission
5. Solid Waste Management
Unscientific dumping leads to groundwater pollution, methane emissions
Major issues in Tier-I cities
Mission: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan , Solid Waste Rules 2016
6. Climate Change
India’s impacts : Glacial retreat, rising sea levels, erratic monsoon, heatwavesIndia’s commitments:
Paris Agreement (2015)
Panchamrit Targets at COP26 (Net zero by 2070)National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
13.3 Biodiversity of India
India = 2.4% of world’s area but 8% of world’s biodiversity 4 recognized biodiversity hotspots :
Himalayas
Western Ghats
Indo-Burma
Sundaland (Nicobar Islands)
Flora and Fauna Stats :
~47,000 species of plants
~90,000 species of animals
Endemic species: Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, Great Indian Bustard
13.4 Conservation Measures A. Protected Area Network Type Purpose Example National Parks Strict protection (no human activity) Kaziranga, Corbett, Bandipur Wildlife Sanctuaries Limited human activity allowed Bharatpur, Periyar Biosphere Reserves Conservation + research + community Nilgiri, Sundarbans, Nanda Devi Conservation Reserves Buffer zones Rajasthan, Karnataka Community Reserves Managed by local communities Meghalaya, Nagaland
B. Important Laws & Acts
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 Forest Conservation Act, 1980 Environment Protection Act, 1986
Biological Diversity Act, 2002
13.5 Environmental Institutions and Initiatives Institution Function MoEFCC Apex ministry on environment, forests, and climate CPCB & SPCBs Pollution control boards (central & state) FRA 2006 Forest Rights for tribal and forest dwellers National Green Tribunal (NGT) Quasi-judicial body on environmental matters Indian State of Forest Report (ISFR) Forest area and cover status
13.6 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Adopted by UN in 2015 – 17 goals, 169 targets
SDG 6 : Clean water and sanitation
SDG 7 : Affordable and clean energySDG 13 : Climate actionSDG 15 : Life on land
13.7 Key Environmental Programs and Missions Mission / Scheme Objective National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) 8 missions including solar, energy efficiency Faster Adoption of Electric Vehicles (FAME) Reduce vehicular emissions Unnat Jyoti (UJALA) LED bulb distribution National Electric Mobility Plan Boost EV ecosystem Green India Mission Afforestation and eco-restoration International Solar Alliance (ISA) Promote solar energy worldwide
13.8 Environmental Movements in India
Chipko Movement (1973) – Uttarakhand, forest conservationNarmada Bachao Andolan – Rehabilitation of displaced due to Sardar Sarovar DamSilent Valley Movement – Kerala, against hydroelectric project
Appiko Movement – Karnataka, inspired by Chipko
UPSC/PSC/SSC Focus Areas
Match environmental laws with years/purpose Biodiversity hotspots on India map
National Parks & Tiger Reserves SDG targets + India’s national actions Current affairs : COP summits, Intergovernmental Panels (IPCC), pollution reports
Chapter 14: World Geography – Landforms, Climate, Oceans, and Biomes 14.1 Major Continents and Landforms Continents (7 total) :
Asia – Largest; includes Himalayas, Gobi desert, rivers like Yangtze, Mekong
Africa – Sahara Desert, Nile River, Great Rift ValleyNorth America – Rockies, Mississippi River, Canadian ShieldSouth America – Andes Mountains, Amazon River, Atacama Desert
Europe – Alps, Danube, Thames, RhineAustralia – Smallest; desert core, Great Dividing RangeAntarctica – Ice-covered, scientific stations
14.2 Major Mountains and Plateaus Mountain Range Location Significance Andes South America Longest range, volcanic activity Rockies North America Fold mountains, young and high Alps Europe Folded, glacial valleys Himalayas Asia Highest peaks (Everest, K2) Ural Russia (Europe–Asia divide) Rich in minerals
Important Plateaus :
Tibetan Plateau : Highest and largestBrazilian Highlands : Iron ore rich
Deccan Plateau : Volcanic, black soilEast African Plateau : Rift Valley system
14.3 Important Deserts of the World Desert Location Type Sahara North Africa Hot Kalahari Southern Africa Semi-arid Gobi Mongolia-China Cold Atacama Chile (S. America) Driest Thar India–Pakistan Hot Great Victoria Australia Hot
14.4 River Systems of the World River Continent Remark Nile Africa Longest river (6,650 km) Amazon South America Largest discharge, rainforest support Yangtze Asia (China) Longest in Asia Mississippi–Missouri North America Important inland waterway Danube Europe Crosses maximum number of countries
14.5 Oceans and Ocean Currents Major Oceans :
Pacific Ocean – Largest, deepest (Mariana Trench)
Atlantic Ocean – Mid-Atlantic Ridge, S-shapedIndian Ocean – Only ocean named after a countrySouthern Ocean – Around Antarctica
Arctic Ocean – Smallest, shallowest
Ocean Currents :
Warm Currents : Gulf Stream (Atlantic), Kuroshio (Pacific)Cold Currents : Labrador (Atlantic), Humboldt (Pacific), Benguela (Africa)
Impact : Fishing zones, climate moderation, fog formation
14.6 Climatic Zones of the World (Köppen Classification) Climate Type Features Example Location Equatorial (Af) Hot, humid, daily rain Amazon Basin, Congo Tropical Savanna (Aw) Wet & dry seasons Brazil, India (peninsular) Desert (BWh) Low rainfall, hot days, cold nights Sahara, Thar Mediterranean (Csa) Dry summer, wet winter Southern Europe, California Temperate (Cfb) Moderate rainfall year-round NW Europe (UK) Continental (Dfa) Cold winter, warm summer Russia, Canada Polar (ET, EF) Below freezing, snow cover Antarctica, Greenland Monsoon (Am)Seasonal rainfall South Asia
14.7 Natural Vegetation and Biomes Biome Climate Vegetation Example Area Tropical Rainforest Hot & wet Evergreen, dense canopy Amazon, Congo, Indonesia Savanna Tropical with dry season Grasses, scattered trees Africa, Australia Desert Arid Xerophytes (cactus, acacia) Sahara, Atacama Temperate Grasslands Moderate dry Tall grasses Prairies (USA), Steppes Taiga (Coniferous Forest) Cold Pine, spruce, fir Canada, Russia Tundra Polar Mosses, lichens, no trees Arctic region
14.8 Tectonic Plates and Earthquakes (Global Context)
Major plates: Pacific, Eurasian, Indian, African, North American, South American
Plate boundaries = earthquake zones
Pacific Ring of Fire : Most seismically active
Mid-Atlantic Ridge : Divergent boundary
Tsunami-prone areas: Indonesia, Japan, Chile
14.9 Important Straits and Canals Name Location Importance Strait of Gibraltar Mediterranean–Atlantic Links Europe & Africa Strait of Malacca Indian Ocean–Pacific Key global shipping route Bering Strait Russia–Alaska Asia–America divide Panama Canal Atlantic–Pacific Reduces sea route time drastically Suez Canal Mediterranean–Red Sea No need to go around Africa
14.10 UPSC/PSC/SSC Focus Areas
Match climatic zones to countries/vegetation types Location-based MCQs : rivers, deserts, mountain rangesOcean current effects on climate, fishing, trade routes
Map-based : Label straits, rivers, cities, biomesCompare Indian and global geography (e.g., monsoons vs Mediterranean)