Chapter 5: Mahajanapadas and Rise of Magadha

During the 6th century BCE, India witnessed a significant transformation from tribal society to territorial kingdoms. This era is notable for the emergence of large kingdoms called Mahajanapadas and the rise of Magadha as the most powerful among them.

1. The 16 Mahajanapadas:

According to the Anguttara Nikaya (a Buddhist text), there were 16 major Mahajanapadas during this period. These included both monarchical and republican states.

List of the 16 Mahajanapadas:

1. Anga
2. Magadha
3. Vajji (or Vriji)
4. Malla
5. Kasi
6. Kosala
7. Vatsa
8. Chedi
9. Kuru
10. Panchala
11. Matsya
12. Surasena
13. Assaka
14. Avanti
15. Gandhara
16. Kamboja

2. Features of Mahajanapadas:

• The transition from semi-nomadic tribal life to settled agriculture and urbanization enabled the rise of powerful kingdoms.
• Fortified cities, standing armies, and a growing class of merchants and artisans characterized this period.
• Taxation became regularized, and coinage (especially punch-marked coins) appeared.
• Capital cities like Rajagriha (Magadha), Kausambi (Vatsa), and Ujjayini (Avanti) became centers of administration and trade.

3. Republican Mahajanapadas:

• Some Mahajanapadas like Vajji and Malla followed a republican system with collective rule by tribal assemblies.
• The Gana-Sanghas, such as the Lichchhavis, functioned without hereditary kings and made decisions through councils and assemblies.

4. Rise of Magadha:

Magadha emerged as the most powerful Mahajanapada due to several strategic advantages:

a. Geographical Position:

• Located in modern-day Bihar, Magadha was rich in natural resources (iron from Chotanagpur plateau) and had fertile land and access to rivers like Ganga and Son.
• It controlled important trade routes.

b. Strong Leadership:

• Magadha was ruled successively by three powerful dynasties:
  • Haryanka Dynasty: Bimbisara and Ajatashatru.
  • Shishunaga Dynasty
  • Nanda Dynasty

Bimbisara (c. 544–492 BCE):

• Founder of the Haryanka dynasty, he followed a policy of expansion through war and marriage alliances.
• Married Kosala princess (gained Kashi as dowry), Lichchhavi princess, and Madra princess.
• Annexed Anga, making Champa a commercial hub.

Ajatashatru (c. 492–460 BCE):

• Son of Bimbisara, known for aggressive expansion.
• Defeated the Lichchhavis and strengthened Magadha’s position.
• Built a fortified city of Pataliputra (modern Patna).

Shishunaga and Nanda Dynasties:

• Shishunaga defeated Avanti and made it part of Magadha.
• The Nandas, particularly Mahapadma Nanda, expanded the empire significantly and maintained a large army.

5. Reasons for Magadha’s Supremacy:

• Strategic location and control over resources.
• Strong rulers and efficient administration.
• Use of iron weapons and elephants in warfare.
• Economic prosperity through agriculture and trade.

6. Importance in Indian History:

• Magadha laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Mauryan Empire.
• Its political centralization and military innovations shaped early Indian polity.

Chapter 6: Religious Movements — Jainism and Buddhism

The 6th century BCE was a period of intense intellectual and spiritual ferment in India. Known as the era of Shramana movements, it saw the rise of heterodox philosophies that challenged Vedic orthodoxy. Among these, Jainism and Buddhism emerged as the most influential.

1. Background and Causes of Emergence:

• Social Factors: The rigid Varna system and dominance of Brahmanas led to social unrest. Lower castes sought spiritual paths that offered equality.
• Religious Factors: Vedic religion had become ritualistic and expensive. Sacrifices and ceremonies favored the upper classes.
• Economic Factors: With the growth of trade and urban centers, a new class of merchants sought religions that were practical and ethical rather than ritualistic.
• Political Factors: Emerging kingdoms supported alternative paths that promoted moral order without empowering Brahmanical dominance.

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2. Jainism:

Founder: Traditionally attributed to Rishabhanatha, the 24th and last Tirthankara was Vardhamana Mahavira (599–527 BCE).

Early Life:

• Born at Kundagrama near Vaishali.
• Belonged to the Kshatriya Licchhavi clan.
• Renounced worldly life at 30, attained Kevalajnana (omniscience) at 42, and preached for 30 years.

Core Teachings:

• Five Vows: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy), Aparigraha (non-possession).
• Belief in karma and reincarnation.
• Salvation through self-discipline, not rituals.
• Denied the authority of the Vedas and the existence of God.
• Advocated extreme asceticism and ethical living.

Sects:

• Shwetambaras (white-clad) — accepted women into the order, believed Mahavira was clothed.
• Digambaras (sky-clad) — did not allow women, believed Mahavira lived naked.

Literature: Jain texts are compiled in the Agamas. Jain councils were held in Pataliputra and Valabhi.

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3. Buddhism:

Founder: Gautama Buddha (563–483 BCE), also known as Siddhartha.

Early Life:

• Born at Lumbini (now in Nepal), son of Suddhodana (Sakya clan).
• Married Yashodhara; renounced at 29.
• Attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya after intense meditation.

First Sermon: Delivered at Sarnath (Dharmachakrapravartana).

Core Teachings:

• Four Noble Truths:
  1. Life is suffering (Dukkha).
  2. Suffering is caused by desire (Trishna).
  3. Suffering can be overcome.
  4. Follow the Eightfold Path to end suffering.
• Eightfold Path:
  Right View, Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration.
• Rejected Vedas, caste, rituals, and Brahmanical dominance.
• Promoted Ahimsa, middle path, and compassion.

Sects:

• Hinayana — Focused on individual salvation, strict monastic life, Buddha as a teacher.
• Mahayana — Worship of Buddha as God, use of Sanskrit, more inclusive.

Buddhist Councils:

• 1st: Rajagriha (Magadha) – codification of teachings.
• 2nd: Vaishali – dispute over monastic discipline.
• 3rd: Pataliputra – under Ashoka.
• 4th: Kundalvana (Kashmir) – under Kanishka, rise of Mahayana.

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4. Impact of Jainism and Buddhism:

• Promoted equality, ethics, and non-violence.
• Influenced Indian art, literature, architecture (stupas, rock-cut caves).
• Led to the spread of Indian culture to Southeast Asia, Central Asia, and beyond.
• Weakened Brahmanical dominance and stimulated social change.

Chapter 7: The Mauryan Empire – Foundation, Administration, and Ashoka

The Mauryan Empire (c. 321–185 BCE) marked the first large-scale political unification of India. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, it reached its zenith under Ashoka the Great and laid the foundation of centralized governance, efficient administration, and imperial ideology in ancient India.

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1. Sources of Mauryan History:

Literary Sources:

• Arthashastra by Kautilya (Chanakya) – manual of political economy and administration.
• Indica by Megasthenes – Greek ambassador at Chandragupta’s court.
• Puranas, Buddhist texts like Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, Divyavadana, and Jain works.

Epigraphic Sources:

• Ashokan Edicts (major, minor rock and pillar edicts in Prakrit, Greek, Aramaic).
• Inscriptions at places like Kalsi, Girnar, Dhauli, Sarnath, Maski, and Kandahar.

Archaeological Sources:

• Remains of Pataliputra, Barabar caves, Ashokan pillars, Sanchi Stupa, etc.

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2. Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321–297 BCE):

• Founder of the Mauryan dynasty, established rule with guidance of Chanakya.
• Overthrew the Nanda Dynasty with a popular uprising.
• Expanded westward after defeating Seleucus I Nicator, gaining territories in Afghanistan and Baluchistan (303 BCE).
• Married Seleucus’ daughter as part of treaty; received 500 war elephants.
• Maintained a centralized administration based in Pataliputra.
• Later embraced Jainism and abdicated throne to become a monk at Sravanabelagola, Karnataka.

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3. Bindusara (c. 297–273 BCE):

• Son of Chandragupta; known as Amitraghata (slayer of enemies).
• Extended Mauryan control southward up to Karnataka.
• Maintained diplomatic relations with Hellenistic kingdoms like Egypt and Syria.
• Greek accounts mention his court receiving ambassadors like Deimachus.

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4. Ashoka the Great (c. 273–232 BCE):

Early Reign:

• Gained throne after a fierce succession war.
• Ruled almost all of India except deep south and parts of northeast.

Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE):

• A brutal campaign to conquer Kalinga (modern Odisha).
• Massive casualties (over 100,000 killed); caused Ashoka’s moral transformation.
• Renounced warfare and embraced Buddhism.

Dhamma (Dharma) Policy:

• Promoted ethical governance, non-violence, tolerance, and compassion.
• Established a network of Dhamma Mahamatras to propagate moral principles.
• Built roads, hospitals, rest houses; banned animal sacrifice.
• Sent Buddhist missions abroad: his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka.
• Promoted unity among religious sects.

Ashokan Inscriptions:

• Found across India, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan.
• Written in Prakrit (Brahmi and Kharosthi script), Greek, and Aramaic.
• Most famous edicts: Rock Edicts (14 major), Pillar Edicts (7), Minor Rock Edicts.

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5. Mauryan Administration:

Central Administration:

• Emperor at the top with a council of ministers (Mantriparishad).
• Highly centralized bureaucracy guided by Arthashastra principles.

Provincial Administration:

• Empire divided into provinces – important ones: Tosali (east), Ujjayini (west), Taxila (northwest), Suvarnagiri (south).
• Governors often from royal family.

Revenue System:

• Bhaga (land tax), custom duties, fines, and trade tolls.
• State control of trade, agriculture, mining, forests, etc.

Army:

• Large standing army with infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots.
• Mention of secret service and espionage network.

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6. Decline of Mauryan Empire:

• After Ashoka’s death, weak successors failed to hold the vast empire.
• Partition of empire and administrative over-centralization.
• Rise of regional powers.
• Last Mauryan ruler Brihadratha was assassinated by his general Pushyamitra Shunga (c. 185 BCE), who founded the Shunga dynasty.

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Legacy of the Mauryan Empire:

• First to unify much of Indian subcontinent.
• Laid the foundations of good governance, welfare state, and imperial ethos.
• Promoted Buddhism globally and left behind rich material culture.